Assessment in the Classroom Essay Example for Free

Assessment in the Classroom Essay Assessment plays a crucial role in the education system as it is a process of evaluating or appraising a piece of work in order to determine where a child is at, and what further teaching needs to be delivered. It is about making a judgment and identifying strengths and weaknesses. As assessment involves making a judgment it will almost inevitably include an element of subjectivity by the assessor. However, we should strive to make assessment as objective, fair, reliable and relevant as possible, (Darr, 2005a 2005b). Assessment of writing needs to focus on particular aspects, as set out in the success criteria, and needs to address the writing itself rather than the author, (Smith Elley, 1997). We assess for different purposes, some of which include motivation to learn, creating learning opportunities, to give feedback to both students and staff, to grade, and as a quality assurance mechanism for both internal and external purposes. Assessment can be defined in two categories; being formative assessment and summative assessment. Formative assessment is a range of formal and informal assessment procedures used by teachers during the learning process that help them to modify teaching and learning activities to order improve student achievement. This typically involves quality feedback rather than grades, and focuses on the details of content and performance. Summative assessment determines the achievement of learners at a particular time and is usually delivered at the end of a unit of work. A test may be given that aims to summarize learning up to that point. The results of this test may also be used to identify any weaknesses and then build on that using formative assessment, (Clarke, Timperley Hattie, 2003). One form of assessment that is commonly used in classrooms today is the use of a rubric or checklist. Rubrics can be holistic or analytical, general or task specific. Analytical rubrics identify and assess components of a finished product, whereas holistic rubrics assess student work as a whole. Rubrics allow teachers to be more objective in grading complex student performances. Rubrics also help students understand more clearly just what is expected of them in an assignment or activity. Rubrics give a reference point and language for raising expectations. Rubrics are a formative type of assessment because they become an ongoing part of the whole teaching and learning process. Students themselves should be involved in the design of such rubrics, and in the assessment process through both peer and self-assessment. This involvement empowers the students and as a result, their learning becomes more focused and self-directed. Many experts believe that rubrics improve students end products and therefore increase learning. When teachers evaluate papers or projects, they know implicitly what makes a good final product and why. When students receive rubrics beforehand, they understand how they will be evaluated and can prepare accordingly. Rubrics can also help students become better judges of the quality of their own work and can help the assessment to be more objective and consistent by forcing the teacher to clarify their criteria in specific terms. Rubrics provide useful feedback to the teacher regarding the effectiveness of the instruction, and also provide students with more informative feedback about their strengths and areas in need of improvement. If set out correctly, rubrics are easy to explain and follow. Arter and McTighe (2000) recommend holistic rubrics for simple products or performances, particularly ones with only one important criterion to assess. They also note that holistic rubrics are useful for â€Å"getting a quick snapshot of overall quality or achievement† No detailed analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of a product or performance. So, they’re not as useful diagnostically to help plan instruction. Nor do they provide students with detailed feedback to guide their improvement† (Arter McTighe, 2000, p. 21). Some teachers suggest that it is more difficult to construct analytical rubrics for all tasks. Creating the rubric, they may find the task of developing, testing, evaluating, and updating time consuming. Often teachers find it difficult to ascertain the correct set of criteria to define performance expectations, and using the correct language to express expectations can often be difficult. There can also be lower consistency amongst different teachers as they have different ideas about what constitutes acceptable criteria. The extra detail in the analytical rubric will help multiple grades emphasize the same criteria. As there is less detail to analyse in the holistic rubric, younger students may be able to integrate it into their schema better than the analytical rubric. Rubrics can also restrict the students thinking in that they may complete the assignment strictly to the rubric instead of taking the initiative to explore their learning. Also if the criteria that is in the rubric is too complex, students may feel overwhelmed with the assignment. Rubrics can provide both formative and summative information if used in the appropriate settings and manner. The ARBs, or Assessment Resource Banks are another form of assessment that is widely used in New Zealand Schools. Teaching and learning need to be an interactive journey between both the student and the teacher. Teachers need to know about their students’ progress and any difficulties they have so that they may adapt their teaching programme accordingly. These needs are often unpredictable and vary from one student to the next; therefore a variety of assessment procedures need to be used within the classroom environment in order to determine and meet the needs of all students, (Black and William, 1998). REFERENCES Arter, J. McTighe, J. (2000). Scoring Rubrics in the Classroom: Using Performance Criteria for Assessing and Improving Student Performance. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press. Black, P. William, D. (1998b). Inside the black box: raising standards through classroom assessment. London: King’s College School of Education. Clarke, S. , Timperley, H. , Hattie, J. (2003). Unlocking Formative Assessment: Practical strategies for enhancing student’s learning in the primary and intermediate classroom. (1st NZ ed. ). New Zealand: Hodder Education. Darr, C. (2005a). A Hitchhiker’s guide to validity. Set: Research Information for Teachers, 2, 55-56. Darr, C. (2005b). A Hitchhiker’s guide to reliability. Set: Research Information for Teachers, 3, 59-60. Smith, J. , Elley, W. (1997). How children learn to write, (pp. 126-138). New Zealand: Addison Wesley Longman.

Using Picture Books in the Secondary Classroom Essay Example for Free

Using Picture Books in the Secondary Classroom Essay There are many reasons to use picture books in middle and high school classrooms (Albright, 2002, 418). Picture books are very useful in all subject areas and all content areas that are taught to secondary students (Albright, 200, 418). There are three stages of planning and implementing that must be considered and understood when utilizing picture books in instructing older children (Albright, 2002, 419). In order to effectively use picture books during read aloud, the secondary teacher must plan, prepare and produce (Albright, 2002, 419). A teacher must plan what book will go with what lesson and ensure that the text is age appropriate (Albright, 2002, 420). The teacher must also prepare a lesson that will make use of the picture book in such a way that students will be engaged in the text within the book (Albright, 2002, 421). Finally, the teacher must produce learning using the selected picture book. In other words, the teacher must be able to observe students learning the intended outcomes while listening to and learning from the picture book (Albright, 2002, 421). â€Å"The primary focus of using picture books in higher grades is to increase students’ literacy skills and ability to analyze short stories† (Tiedt, 2000, 1). Picture books have a great deal to offer middle and high school students (Tiedt, 2000, 1). There are four major reasons why teachers should consider using picture books in teaching secondary students (Tiedt, 2000, 1). The first is that picture books are useful resources for promoting good classroom discussions (Tiedt, 2000, 1). Second, picture books provide engaging models for teaching writing (Tiedt, 2000, 1). Third, students can improve their oral language skills as they read out loud, performance dramatic reenactions and tell stories (Tiedt, 2000, 1). Fourth, can use picture books as models to write their own picture books and therefore enhancing their own individual creativity (Tiedt, 2000, 1). There are many reasons why picture books are so useful and should be incorporated into secondary classrooms (Young, 1). The themes of many picture books are appropriate for all ages and they include many genres that cover topics of importance to students of all ages (Young, 1997, 1). Second, many new picture books are published each year and older students may not have had the benefit of reading these new books. Using new picture books in secondary school settings exposes older students to resources they may otherwise have missed as new picture books incorporate better artwork and more high quality metaphor and description (Young, 1997, 1). Third, picture books are incorporating many more real world events and topics than they have in the past. For example, more picture book writers are writing about such issues as war, global warming and nuclear destruction (Young, 1997, 1). Fourth, the short format of books allows for easy incorporation into lessons. The material in short picture books is easy for secondary students to comprehend and therefore students are able to quickly grasp the subject so they can move on towards creatively applying the material to the topic or subject being studied (Young, 1997, 1). Finally, picture books the pictures in picture books can be used as a comprehension aid for secondary students (Young, 1997, 1). In the current age of television and video games, secondary students have become accustomed to using pictures to make connections so picture books build on this ability. The visual cues in pictures allow students to easily comprehend what they are reading and use those applications in the lesson material (Young, 1997, 1). One subject where picture books can be enormously useful is in math (Spicer, 2004, 1). Typically, picture books that discuss math concepts are only used in the primary levels of school. However, there are a great many picture books that can get even high school students excited about math (Spicer, 2004, 1). For example, elementary school students will gain a firm grasp on geometric concepts when reading Sir Cumference and the First Round Table. The book details the efforts of Sir Cumference and his son Radius, in showing the knights how they can all sit peacefully at a square table (Spicer, 2004, 1). High school students would enjoy the silliness of this book as well as reviewing basic geometry concepts (Spicer, 2004,1). Similarly, there are many picture books that can be applied to high school life. One good example is The Dot and the Line: A Romance in Lower Mathematics. This book is about a love triangle. The straight line is in love with the dot that is in love with the squiggle. By the end of the story, high school students will learn that when a line bends a little, a vector is created (Spicer, 2004, 1). Students of all ages love picture books (Spicer, 2004, 1). There are many fun and easy ways to incorporate picture books into secondary math lessons (Spicer, 2004, 1). Students can choose a book from a list provided by the teacher and write a report about the math concepts included in the story (Spicer, 2004, 1). They can also write mathematical sequels or prequels to books that are read aloud in class (Spicer, 2004, 1). Utilizing picture books as part of math lessons will ensure that weeks later secondary students recall both the story and the lesson (Spicer, 2004, 1). Another way that picture books are useful in the secondary classroom is in assisting struggling readers (McEwan, 2007, 1). Generally, high school students read very long and complex textbooks (McEwan, 2007, 1). The problem lies in the fact that struggling readers cannot use these textbook to learn because they are not fluent enough readers (McEwan, 2007, 1). Therefore, picture books can help struggling readers become better readers at the same time that they are learning the same concepts as the other students (McEwan, 2007, 1). In addition, background knowledge is important when teaching nonfiction concepts to secondary school students (McEwan, 2007, 1). Easy nonfiction books should be collected and provided to students who need alternative resources when textbooks are too challenging for them (McEwan, 2007, 1). Further, when students gain the necessary background knowledge and learn key concepts through reading easy nonfiction picture books, they are able to gain the confidence to try the more challenging textbook material (McEwan, 2007, 1). In order to assist struggling readers, a comprehensive list of nonfiction picture books aimed at math, science and other subjects should be compiled and made available to teachers and students (McEwan, 2007, 1). Writing is another subject area where picture books provide an enormous benefit to secondary students (Culham, 2000, 1). Picture books are a readily available but untapped resource that many secondary teachers are just beginning to discover (Culham, 2000, 1). Picture books can be highly visual and motivating in teaching students to become better writers (Culham, 2000, 1). Picture books can be used as models to help writing students organize their thoughts in meaningful ways, to explore new topics and share different viewpoints about various topics (Culham, 2000, 1). Using picture books can show students how other authors use word choice, and editing to create a polished piece of written work (Culham, 2000, 1). In addition, picture books can enable students to use a small amount of text to find a large amount of meaning (Culham, 2000, 1). There are a wide variety of topics available in using picture books and these topics can inspire creativity in writing students (Culham, 2000, 1). Picture books explore current and relevant topics that can further enhance writing ideas (Culham, 2000, 1). Finally, picture books can often inspire fresh creativity about old ideas that can lead to better writing (Culham, 2000, 1). Social studies is another area where picture books can be easily incorporated into lesson plans (Young, 1997, 1). The study of people places and cultures are natural compliments to picture books (Young, 1997, 1). The true life events of the past and present can be portrayed through the eyes of the characters and current events can be explored (Young, 1997, 1). Events such as World War II, the Vietnam War and Paul Revere’s ride teach about these historical events in easy to follow formats (Young, 1997, 1). In addition, current events such as homelessness can be described through short picture books that incorporate pictures and text to convey the seriousness of such issues (Young, 1997, 1). Science can very easily incorporate picture books (Young, 1997, 1). An obvious example would be the Magic School Bus series that explores various science concepts through and elementary classroom and its use of the magic school bus to take field trips (Young, 1997, 1). These books explore science concepts that are easy for elementary school students to understand but are also relevant to secondary school students as they provide good introductions into science concepts that can then be built upon (Young, 1997, 1). These books provide a way to explore science through the eyes of children and include a great many side notes and text that describe such concepts as the solar system, the human body, the earth and the water cycle (Young, 1997, 1). Finally, picture books can be successfully incorporated into vocabulary lessons (Bartell, 2005, 57). In fact, picture books can be used as an alternative to traditional vocabulary instruction (Bartell, 2005, 57). Traditional vocabulary instruction often makes students copy words and their definitions into notebooks but picture books allow students to as models to create their own picture books. The use of alphabet books gives students the creative ideas necessary to write their own text and therefore increase vocabulary as they write (Bartell, 2005, 57). The nature of picture books allow for high levels of vocabulary and the illustrations provide further avenues for students to make connections between pictures and words (Bartell, 2005, 57). Picture books in the hands of skilled language arts teachers can create lessons of extraordinary educational value (Young, 1997, 1). The content of the picture books are important in increasing secondary students reading and writing abilities but their value goes far beyond this content (Young, 1997, 1). The pictures used in children’s literature can also help students build awareness of language as well as explore illustrations as a way to communicate meaning in a non intimidating way (Young, 1997, 1). Therefore, teachers need to be cautious when choosing picture books to incorporate into lesson plans. They must choose picture books based on the quality of the art and the quality of the text (Young, 1997, 1). The pictures and the text need to work together to provide a comprehensive book that will be easily incorporated into the lesson plan (Young, 1997, 1). In order to successfully picture books into secondary classrooms, some important changes need to be made (Young, 1997, 1). The first is the attitude that picture books are children’s literature. Instead, picture books should simply be viewed as literature (Young, 1997, 1). Once this attitude is changed then educators can start seeing the curriculum opportunities that picture books offer (Young, 1997, 1). Picture books entertain students and provide information about a wide variety of topics that can then lead to a greater understanding of the world (Young, 1997, 1). Picture books are another tool that literacy teachers should know about, have access to and incorporate into their lesson plans (Young, 1997, 1). Teachers have been reading aloud to elementary school students for centuries (Guignon, 2001, 1). Research has shown the value of reading out loud to emerging readers (Guignon, 2001, 1). However, once a child learns to read on his or her own, being read to out loud often decreases or stops altogether (Guignon, 2001, 1). Reading aloud to students of any age helps them improve the important literacy skills of reading, writing, speaking and listening (Guignon, 2001, 1). Students listen to stories read out loud on a higher level then they read on their own and so hearing stories read out loud stimulates their understanding of vocabulary and language patterns (Guignon, 2001, 1). There are some important guidelines for teachers when reading out loud to secondary students (Guignon, 2001, 1). The first is that the teacher and students must make time to discuss the story in order to expand student understanding of the topic the story covers (Guignon, 2001, 1). Second, the illustrations should be used to encourage prediction and interpretation. Using the illustrations can add to the students’ understanding of the events in the story (Guignon, 2001, 1). Third, read out loud gives students the opportunity to learn more about different authors and illustrators. It also allows them to look forward to reading other books by favorite authors (Guignon, 2001, 1). Fourth, hearing picture books read out loud gives students the chance to relate the stories to their own experiences (Guignon, 2001, 1). Finally, reading out loud brings in more curriculum related topics that are of special interest to the class (Guignon, 2001, 1). Teachers are often wary of presenting controversial and private topics into their curriculum and instruction (Bartell, 2005, 57). Picture books provide an outlet for these issues by presenting the material in non threatening way (Bartell, 2005, 57). Secondary students are often facing many stressors as they are not quite grown yet but are no longer children. Their bodies are changing as are the nature of their social situations (Bartell, 2005, 57). Picture books provide a way for students to explore the issues that present themselves at this point in life by exposing them to characters going through similar experiences (Bartell, 2005, 57). Picture books are short and get right to the point so they provide an easy way to show secondary students how to deal with situations that they are experiencing (Bartell, 2005, 57).

Assessing Pain in in Post Operative Breast Cancer Patients

Assessing Pain in in Post Operative Breast Cancer Patients Comparison between Brief  Pain  Inventory (BPI) and Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) for post-operative pain assessment in Saudi Arabian  breast cancer patients. Questions Does  BPI assess  post-operative breast cancer pain  more  accurately than NRS? Summary: Effective pain assessment is one of the  fundamental  criteria  of the  management of  pain. It involves  the  evaluation of pain intensity, location of the pain and response to treatment. There are  a  number  of multi and one-dimensional assessment tools  that  have already been established to assess cancer pain. Among these  are the  Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) and  the  Numerical Rating Scale (NRS), Breast cancer is  a growing public  concern in Saudi Arabia  as rates continue to escalate, with patients  also  suffering multiple problems after surgery. Therefore, my research aim is to  conduct a  comparative study  of tools  used to  assess post-operative breast cancer pain  in  Saudi Arabian  patients  and determine which is the most effective. In this process I will use questionnaires for both nurses and patients to collect data,  followed by statistical analysis and  a  comparative  study between  the  BPI and NRS. Research Hypothesis: BPI assesses  post-operative breast cancer pain  in Saudi Arabian  patients  more  accurately than NRS.   Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between BPI and NRS  as tools for  assessing post-operative breast cancer pain  in  Saudi Arabian  patients Background: Pain is defined as  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœthe normal, predicted physiological response to an adverse chemical, thermal or mechanical stimulus related with surgery, trauma or acute illness’ (Carr and Goudas, 1999).  Pain assessment is a crucial component for the effective management of post-operative pain in relation to breast cancer. The patient’s report is the main  resource  of information  regarding the  characterisation and evaluation of pain; as such, assessment is  the ‘dynamic method of explanation of the syndrome of the pain, patho-physiology and  the basis for  designing a protocol for its management’  (Yomiya, 2011). A recent survey  questioned almost 900 physicians  897 and found  that  76% reported substandard  pain assessment  procedures  as the single most important barrier  to  suitable  pain management (Roenn  et al, 1993). Breast cancer is characterized by  a  lump or thickening in  the  breast, discharge or bleeding,  a  change in colour of  the  areola, redness or pitting of skin  and a  marble like area under  the  skin (WebMD, 2014[A1]). Breast cancer  has a high prevalence rate globally and is the second most diagnosed cancer in women. Approximately  1.7 million cases were reported in 2012  alone  (WCRFI, 2014). In 2014,  just over  15,000  women  have  already  been  diagnosed with breast cancer: this figure is predicted to rise to around 17,200 in 2020 Breast cancer  has also been identified  as one of the major cancer related problems in Saudi Arabia, with 6,922 women were  assessed[A2]  for breast cancer between 2001-2008 (Alghamdi,  2013[A3]). D  Pain assessment tools Polit  et al  (2006) conducted  a systematic review of the evidence base  and  recorded a total of  80 different assessment tools that  contained  at least one pain item. The  tools were then  categorised into pain tools  (n=48)  and general symptoms tools  (n=32) . They were then  separated into uni-dimensional  tools  (which measure the pain intensity)  and multi-dimensional tools  (include more than one pain dimension). 33%  of all pain tools  (n=16) were uni-dimensional, and  50% of all  general symptom tools  (n=16)were uni-dimensional. 58% of the uni-dimensional tools  employed  single  item scales such as  the  Visual  Analogue  Scale (VAS), Verbal Rating Scales (VRS)  and NRS (Numerical  Rating  Scale). The most common dimension  included  was pain intensity, present in 60% of  tools. In  the assessed tools, 60% assessed pain  in a  multi-dimensional  format. Among  pain tools,  67% were found   to be  multi-dimensional  compared with 50% of the general symptom tools.  38% of all multi-dimensional tools were two-dimensional.  The most  commonly used  dimension was  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœintensity’,  present  in 75% of  all  multi-dimensional tools. Other common  dimensions  include  interference, location  and beliefs. All the dimensions were specifically targeted by two particular tools which were disease-specific tools and tools that measure pains affect, beliefs, and coping-related  issues[A4]. Multidimensional Pain assessment tools: F  The  adequate measurement of pain  requires  more than one tool. Melzack and Casey (1968)  highlight that  pain assessment  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœshould include three dimensions which are sensory-discriminative, motivational-affective and cognitive-evaluative’.  This builds on the  earlier  proposal of  Beecher (1959)  who considered that all tools should include the  two dimensions  of  pain and reaction to pain. Cleeland (1989)  considered that  the  two dimensions  should be classified  as sensory and reactive. Sensory dimensions  should record  the intensity or severity  of pain  and the reactive dimensions should include accurate measures of interference  in the  daily function  of the patient.   Multi-dimensional pain assessments generally consist of  six  dimensions: physiologic, sensory, affective, cognitive, behavioural and sociocultural (McGuire, 1992). Cleeland (1989)  interviewed patients and  found  that  seven items could effectively measure the intensity and effects of the pain in daily activities: these  comprise  of  general activity, walking, work, mood, enjoyment of life, relations with others and sleep. These elements were later subdivided  into two groups: ‘REM’  (relations with others, enjoyment of life and mood) and  Ã¢â‚¬ËœWAW’  (walking, general activity and work). Later, Cleeland  et al  (1996) developed  the  Brief  Pain  Inventory (BPI) in both  its  short and long form.  It was designed  to capture two  categories  of interference such as  activity and affect on  emotions.  The  BPI provides  a relatively  quick and easy method  of measuring  the  intensity  of pa in  and the  level of  interference  in the  daily activities of the  sufferer. With the BPI  tool, patients are graded  on  a 0-10 and it  was  specifically  designed  for the  assessment of  cancer related pain. Patients  are  asked  about the intensity of the pain that they are experiencing at present, as well as the pain intensity over  the last 24 hours as  the  worst, least  or  average  pain (also  on a scale of 0-10). Each  scale is bound  by the words ‘no pain’  (0) and  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœpain as bad as you can imagine’  (10). Patients are also  requested  to rate the degree to which pain interferes  with their  daily activities within the seven  domains  on a scale of 0-10.  that comprise general activity, walking, mood, sleep, work, relations with other persons, and enjoyment of life using similar scales of 0 to  10[A5]. These scales are only confined by the words ‘does not interfere’ and ‘interferes  completely[A6]’ (Tan  et al, 2004).  Validation of BPI across the world among the different language people has already been justified.  [A7]Additionally, the localization of the pain in the body  could be  [A8]assessed and details of current medication are assessed (Caraceni  et al, 1996). Uni-dimensional pain assessment tool:   Previous studies  have  shown  that  the  Numerical  Rating  Scale (NRS) had the power to assess pain intensity for patients  experiencing chronic pain and was also an effective assessment tool for patients with cancer related pain. The  NRS consists of a numerical scale range between 0-100 where 0 was considered as one extreme point represented no pain and 100 was considered other extreme point which represented bad/ worse pain  (Jensen et al, 1986). Turk  et al  (1993) developed  an  11 point  NRS (scale 0-10) where 0 equalled  no pain and 10  equalled  worst pain. Though cancer pain differs from acute, postoperative and chronic  pain experiences, the most common feature is its subjective nature. [A9]  In this regard a consensus meeting on cancer pain assessment and classification was held in Italy in 2009  with the  recommendation that  pain intensity should be measured  on a  scale  of  0-10 with  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœno pain’à ‚  and  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœpain as bad as you can  imagine[A10]’  (Hjermstad  et al.,  2011). Krebs  et al.  (2007) categorised NRS scores as mild (1–3), moderate (4–6), or severe (7–10). A rating of  4 or 5  is  the most commonly recommended lower limit  for moderate pain and 7 or 8 for severe pain. Aimed at moderate pain assessment,  For the purpose of clinical and administrative use the  recommendation for moderate pain assessment on the scale is a score of 4. Importance of post- operative pain assessment: Post-operative pains  is  very common after surgery  and  the  use of  medication  often  depends  on the intensity of pain  that the patient is experiencing  (Chung  et al, 1997). Insufficient assessment of post-operative pain  can have a  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœsignificant detrimental  effect on raised levels of anxiety, sleep disturbance, restlessness, irritability, aggression, distress and suffering’  (Carr  et al,  2005). Additional  physiological  effects can include  increased  blood pressure, vomiting and paralytic ileus, increased adrenaline production, sleep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolus (Macintyre and Ready, 2002). Effective post-operative pain assessment ensures better pain management  and can significantly reduce the risk of the symptoms listed above, giving minimal distress or suffering  to patients  and reducing  potential complications (Machintosh, 2007). References: Alghamdi IG, Hussain II, Alhamdi MS, El-Sheemy MA (2013) Arabia: an observational descriptive epidemiological analysis of data from Saudi Cancer Registry 2001-2008. Dovepress. Breast cancer: Targets and therapy; 5: 103-109. Caraceni A, Mendoza TR, Mencaglia E (1996) A validation study of an Italian version of the Brief Pain Inventory (Breve Questionario per la Valutazione del Dolore). Pain; 65: 87-92. Carr D and Goudas L. C. (1999) Acute pain. Lancet 353, 2051-2058. Carr EC, Thomas NV, Wilson-Barnet J (2005) Patient experiences of anxiety, depression and acute pain after surgery: a longitudinal perspective. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 42(5): 521-530. Chung F, Ritchie E, Su J (1997) Postoperative pain in ambulatory surgery. Anaesthesia and Analgesia 85: 808-816.   Cleeland CS (1989) Measurement of pain by subjective report. Issues in pain measurement. New York: Raven Press; pp. 391-403. Cleeland CS, Nakamura Y, Mendoza TR, Edwards KR, Douglas J, Serlin RC (1996) Dimensions of the impact of cancer pain in a four country sample: new information from multidimensional scaling. Pain 67 (2-3): 267-273. Hjermstad MJ, Fayers PM, Haugen DF, Caraceni A, Hanks GW, Loge JH, Fainsinger R, Aass N, Kaasa S (2011) Studies comparing numerical rating scale, verbal rating scale and visual analogue scales for assessment of pain intensity in adults: a systematic literature review. Journal of pain and symptom management. 41 (6): 1073-1093. Jensen MP, Karoly P, Braver S (1986) The measurement of clinical pain intensity: a comparison of six methods. Pain 27: 117-126. Krebs EE, Carey TS, Weinberger M (2007) Accuracy of the pain numeric rating scale as a screening test in primary care. Journal of general medicine. 22(10): 1453-1458. Machintosh C (2007) Assessment and management of patients with post-operative pain. Nursing Standard. 22 (5): 49-55. Macintyre PE, Ready LB (2002) Acute pain management. Second edition, WB Saunders, Edinburgh. McGuire DB (1992) Comprehensive and multidimensional assessment and measurement of pain. Journal of pain and symptom management; 7(5): 312-319. Melzack R and Casey KL (1968) Sensory, motivational and central control determinants of pain: a new conceptual model. In: Kenshalo DR, editor. The skin senses proceedings. Springfield IL: Thomas; pp. 423-439. National Breast Cancer Foundation (NBCF): 2014;  http://www.nbcf.org.au/Research/About-Breast-Cancer.aspx Polit JCHC, Hjermstad MJ, Loge JH, Fayers PM, Caraceni A, Conno FD, Forbes K, Furst CJ, Radbruch L, Kaasa S (2006) Pain assessment tools: Is the content appropriate for use in palliative care? Journal of pain and symptom management, 32 (6): 567-580. Roenn JHV, Cleeland CS, Gonin R, Hatfield AK, Pandya KJ (1993) Physician attitudes and practice in cancer pain management. A survey from the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Annals of Internal Medicine, 119(2): 121-126. Tan G, Jensen MP, Thornby JI, Shanti BF (2004) Validation of the brief pain inventory for chronic non-malignant pain. The Journal of Pain. 5(2): 133-137. Turk DC, Rudy TE, Sorkin BA (1993) Neglected topics in chronic pain treatment outcome studies: determination of success. Pain (53):3–16. WebMD (2014)  http://www.webmd.com/breast-cancer/guide/overview-breast-cancer. World cancer research fund international (WCRFI): 2014;  http://www.wcrf.org/cancer_statistics/data_specific_cancers/breast_cancer_statistics.php. Youmiya K (2011) Cancer pain assessment. The Japanese Journal of Anesthesiology. 60(9): 1046-1052. [A1]I would consider using a more reputable source for describing medical symptoms themselves (Grey’s Anatomy, WHO guidelines etc) [A2]and treated? [A3]Is it worth commenting that breast cancer reporting rates in SA might be different from actual prevalence? Lack of awareness regarding certain cancers often results in late diagnosis or misdiagnosis. [A4]This sentence is unclear. I am assuming that you are stating that all dimensions are present in two particular tools? [A5]I’ve deleted this as you have highlighted the same domains in the previous paragraph and the reader will already be familiar with this term. [A6]Sentence shows up on copyscape / turnitin but it’s fine as a directly referenced quote. [A7]Is this sentence stating that the BPIs valid internationally because it has been adjusted culturally / linguistically for all groups? [A8]Are you making a suggestion that it could be assessed, or stating that sometimes people do assess localised pain in the body? [A9]Deleted as the next sentence deals with this already. [A10]Again shows up in turnitin: any quotes must be in inverted commas so that tutors / markers will not downgrade or suspect plagiarism.

Interracial America :: Racial Relations, People of Color, Asians

Lakshmi Chaundhry is a senior editor of AlterNet, an independent, alternative online news magazine. He thinks that people of different races falling in love, is a â€Å"luxury we can’t afford.†(158) Meanwhile, Andrew Sullivan a contributing writer for New York Times Magazine and senior editor of the New Republic thinks that interracial marriages break barriers and make people happier which in turn makes them more successful. Sullivan thinks, â€Å"If the rate of inter-racial marriages increases, the next generation may well not identify as ‘black’ or ‘white’ at all.†(158) â€Å"To avoid frustration, self-loathing, and anger, people of color should be discouraged from entering interracial romantic relationships,† claims Chaundry.(158) Chaundry suggests that people should stay away from interracial relationships. One of his main reasons is because not everyone will have someone. He feels that everyone picks and chooses. Chaundry states that it’s a â€Å"racial hierarchy.† â€Å"Anglos squarely are at the top.†(159) The Anglos determine who is hot and who is not. One of his arguments is about Asians. â€Å"Asians just don’t cut the list,† states Chaundry. (159) There will be no women for the Asian guy. â€Å"’We’re at the bottom of the pile, right along with black women.’†(159) Even Hollywood shows this. â€Å"In ‘Shanghai Knights,’ actress Fann Wong is matched with Owen Wilson instead of Jackie Chan, who is conveniently cast as her brother.†(159) Hollywood is send ing the message that Asian men are not wanted. â€Å"No women for the Asian guy.†(159) This affects the life of people. Henry says, â€Å"’It means a lot of loneliness, a lot of Friday nights without a date.’†(159) Being lonely leads these men to have â€Å"’an obsession with pornography.’† (160) Not having anyone for them affects the lives of these Asian men. On the contrary, â€Å"Asian women have a better shot at getting some white booty.†(160) This is called a â€Å"cultural leverage.†(160). A cultural leverage is when one sex isn’t really accepted culturally but the other sex can get anyone they desire. The Asian woman has more sexual options. The Asian man is limited to very few choices. â€Å"The men in my community want the right to do the same.†(160) This is a problem that the Asian man faces according to Chaudhry and her resources. â€Å"I spent my teen years falling in and out of love with a number of seriously cute Indian boys.†(161) She grew up in Indian where she refers to it as â€Å"[having] harsher realities of race.†(161) When she moved back to America she was judged by a white person for her marriage.

A Student Looks at Websites for 3D Graphics Cards :: Sell Websites Buy Web Sites

A Student Looks at Websites for 3D Graphics Cards There are many players in the game of computer graphics cards for personal computers. ATI and NVIDIA are two major competitors in this field along with many others. They have many differences that set them apart and also many issues that they have in common. One such issue is each company’s website. ATI’s and NVIDIA’s respective websites both target the same audience. With this being the case, they try their best to differentiate themselves from each other using a different yet somehow very similar layout for their websites. The audience that both companies are trying to get at is the biggest issue that these two giants have in common. They both target what has become the biggest market share in PC graphics, the computer gamer. The computer gamer can be anybody that plays any number of games on their PC. In order to run these games, they need a graphics card capable of supporting them. ATI and NVIDIA both know that this group of PC users are very dedicated to their hobby and put a lot of time and money into their graphics cards. ATI and NVIDIA also know that this same group of PC gamers is also very adept at using the internet. It is with no surprise then that both of their websites target PC gamers first and everyone else second. ATI and NVIDIA both have their best gaming graphics card right in front of the viewer when they enter their respective websites. This is no coincidence. With both companies targeting the PC gamer first and foremost, the center of attention is going to be given to the latest gaming graphics card. That starting point is about the only thing these two have in common when it comes to presenting their best card. They each try to take a different approach to the PC gamer audience and it is very interesting to compare the two. ATI presents their new card using a very flashy and slick interactive presentation. It allows the user to get involved with the website and can be very impressive and entertaining. Unfortunately it is also very annoying. Once the novelty of the presentation has worn off it can actually be quite distracting. The most noticeable distraction comes when looking at the technical specifications of the card.

Rossetts Model Essay -- Instructional Design Rossett Essays

Rossett's Model Overview Organizations are constantly faced with finding solutions to their problems. Often times they demand training to act as a quick fix to their problems; thus, trainers need to make needs assessment an essential part of their instructional design process. Otherwise, according to Zemke (1998), trainers "could very well end up doing a marvelous job of solving the wrong problems". Therefore, the trainer's challenge is to find the problem and to understand it sufficiently so that it can be solved (Rossett, 1987). "Analysis or needs assessment is the basis for wise recommendation about instruction and supporting organizational strategies" (Rossett 1992). The terms used may vary. Some may refer it to front-end analysis; others may site a need to gather information, while some are planning, studying or scoping (Rossett 1990). No matter what it is called, Rossett (1987) believes trainers must make professional and convincing cases for analysis prior to particular solutions. This paper will focus on Rossett's Model and look at how each component of the model helps identify an organization's needs in order to provide possible solutions. Purpose of Needs Assessment According to Rossett (1995), needs assessment is the "initial pursuit of information about a situation" (pg. 183) in order to provide trainers insight into "what is needed to improve performance" (pg. 184). Conducted at the beginning of any training or development process, needs assessments are intended to identify gaps between what should be happening and what is actually happening (Rossett, 1987). In her needs assessment model, Rossett states five purposes of the needs assessment process (Rossett, 1987). This process is i... ...rocess. It is at this stage that all of the future actions of any project are planned. The bottom line is that a thorough needs assessment will save time and money in the development process by targeting the cause(s) of the problem in order to prescribe the correct interventions. References: Rossett, A. (1995). Needs assessment. In G.J. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, future (2nd ed.). (pp. 183-196). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Rossett, A. (1992). Performance technology for instructional technologist: Comparisons and possibilities. Performance and Instruction, 31(10), 6-10. Rossett, A. (1987). Training Needs Assessment, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Zemke, R. (1998). How to do a needs assessment when you think you don't have time. Training, 35(3), 38-44

Abstract to Tata Motors Essay

Tata Motors Limited (formerly TELCO) is an Indian multinational automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India and a subsidiary of the Tata Group. Its products include passenger cars, trucks, vans, coaches, buses and military vehicles. It is the world’s eighteenth-largest motor vehicle manufacturing company, fourth-largest truck manufacturer and second-largest bus manufacturer by volume. Tata Motors has auto manufacturing and assembly plants in Jamshedpur, Pantnagar, Lucknow, Sanand, Dharwad and Pune in India, as well as in Argentina, South Africa, Thailand and the United Kingdom. It has research and development centres in Pune, Jamshedpur, Lucknow and Dharwad, India, and in South Korea, Spain, and the United Kingdom. It has a bus manufacturing joint venture with Marcopolo S.A.,a construction equipment manufacturing joint venture with Hitachi and a joint venture with Fiat in India. Founded in 1945 as a manufacturer of locomotives, the company manufactured its first commercial vehicle in 1954 in a collaboration with Daimler-Benz AG, which ended in 1969.[6] Tata Motors entered the passenger vehicle market in 1991 with the launch of the Tata Sierra and in 1998 launched the first fully indigenous Indian passenger car, the Indica. Tata Motors acquired the South Korean truck manufacturer Daewoo Commercial Vehicles Company in 2004 and the British premium car maker Jaguar Land Rover in 2008. Tata Motors is listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the BSE SENSEX index, the National Stock Exchange of India and the New York Stock Exchange. Tata Motors is ranked 314th in the 2012 Fortune Global 500 ranking of the world’s biggest corporations. Mission To be passionate in anticipating and providing the best vehicles and experiences that excite our customers globally. Vision Most admired by our customers, employees, business partners and shareholders for the experience and value they enjoy from being with us. Culture * Accountability * Customer & product focus * Excellence * Speed Values * Inclusion * Integrity * Accountability * Customer * Innovation * Concern for the environment * Passion for excellence * Agility Product Portfolio| Brands| 1. Tata Sumo 2. Tata Safari3. Tata Indica 4. Tata Indica Vista5. Tata Indigo 6. Tata Manza7. Tata Indigo Marina 8. Tata Winger9. Tata Magic 10. Tata Nano11. Tata Xenon XT 12. Tata Aria13. Tata Venture| SWOT Analysis| Strength| 1. One of the most established company in automobile sector2. Wide & extensive distribution and service network3. Good market penetration in the taxi & rental segment4. Expert service professionals available5. Many associations like Jaguar Land Rover, Hispanso, Macropolo etc which increases international presence6. Dedicated engineering and R&D department7. More than 60,000 employees8. Highly diversified product portfolio| Weakness| 1. Limited international presence2. Sometimes faces alleged quality and durability issues3. Not much customer engagement programs and activities| Opportunity| 1. Expanding automobile market and available space for competitors2. Increasing per capita income and purchasing capability of potential customer base3. Leveraging customer engagement experience to acquire new customers4. Leveraging mergers and acquisitions to acquire newer technology5. Augmenting the distribution and service network in various countries| Threats| 1. Increasing fuel costs2. Competition from other big automobile giants3. Competitive products offering same level features at a lesser price4. Product innovations and frugal engineering by competitors| Automobile market in India: The automotive industry in India is one of the larger markets in the world and had previously been one of the fastest growing globally, but is now seeing flat or negative growth rates.India’s passenger car and commercial vehicle manufacturing industry is the sixth largest in the world, with an annual production of more than 3.9 million units in 2011. According to recent reports, India overtook Brazil and became the sixth largest passenger vehicle producer in the world (beating such old and new auto makers as Belgium, United Kingdom, Italy, Canada, Mexico, Russia, Spain, France, Brazil), grew 16 to 18 per cent to sell around three million units in the course of 2011-12. In 2009, India emerged as Asia’s fourth largest exporter of passenger cars, behind Japan, South Korea, and Thailand.In 2010, India beat Thailand to become Asia’s third largest exporter of passenger cars. As of 2010, India is home to 40 million passenger vehicles. More than 3.7 million automotive vehicles were produced in India in 2010 (an increase of 33.9%), making the country the second (after China) fastest growing automobile market in the world in that year.According to the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers, annual vehicle sales are projected to increase to 4 million by 2015, no longer 5 million as previously projected. â€Å"The production of passenger vehicles in India was recorded at 3.23 million in 2012-13 and is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13 per cent during 2012-2021, as per data published by Automotive Component Manufacturers Association of India (ACMA)†. The majority of India’s car manufacturing industry is based around three clusters in the south, west and north. The southern cluster consisting of Chennai is the biggest with 35% of the revenue share. The western hub near Mumbai and Pune contributes to 33% of the market and the northern cluster around the National Capital Region contributes 32%. Chennai, with the India operations of Ford, Hyundai, Renault, Mitsubishi, Nissan, BMW, Hindustan Motors, Daimler, Caparo, and PSA Peugeot Citroà «n is about to begin their operations by 2014. Chennai accounts for 60% of the country’s automotive exports.[10] Gurgaon and Manesar in Haryana form the northern cluster where the country’s largest car manufacturer, Maruti Suzuki, is based.[11] The Chakan corridor near Pune, Maharashtra is the western cluster with companies like General Motors, Volkswagen, Skoda, Mahindra and Mahindra, Tata Motors, Mercedes Benz, Land Rover, Jaguar Cars, Fiat and Force Motors having assembly plants  in the area. Nashik has a major base of Mahindra & Mahindra with a UV assembly unit and an Engine assembly unit. Aurangabad with Audi, Skoda and Volkswagen also forms part of the western cluster. Another emerging cluster is in the state of Gujarat with manufacturing facility of General Motors in Halol and further planned for Tata Nano at their plant in Sanand. Ford, Maruti Suzuki and Peugeot-Citroen plants are also set to come up in Gujarat.Kolkata with Hindustan Motors, Noida with Honda and Bangalore with Toyota are some of the other automotive manufacturing regions around the country. Competition: Tata Motors enjoys giant-sized growth thanks to its Nano cars. The company — India’s largest automobile maker by sales — makes buses, trucks, tractor-trailers, passenger cars (Indica, Indigo, Jaguar, Land Rover, Safari, Sumo, and the popular micro car Nano), light commercial vehicles, and utility vehicles. It also makes construction equipment and provides IT services. Tata Motors sells through more than 1,000 dealers in India, as well as exports vehicles to countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and South America. In addition, the company distributes Fiat-brand cars in India through its Tata-Fiat dealer network. List of Competitors: Commercial vehicles: 1. Ashok Leyland 2. Volvo motors 3. Swaraj Mazda 4. Mahindra motors Passenger Vehicles 1. MSIL 2. Hyundai motors 3. Honda motors References: http://www.slideshare.net/ykartheekguptha/tata-motors-2010-ppt-by-karthik http://www.tatamotors.com/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors http://www.mbaskool.com/brandguide/automobiles/5022-tata-motors.html